![]() Here we investigated the role of physiological stress on participants' lethal force decisions with Black suspects using a novel virtual reality (VR) paradigm. Participants adopted the expected generous criterion for Black stimuli and cautious criterion for White stimuli when deciding to shoot. Signal detection analyses found that participants were significantly more accurate at discriminating weapons when primed with a Hispanic/Latino stimulus than other ethnic stimuli. Repeated measures ANOVA conducted on mean response times and error rates found participants significantly shot unarmed Black stimuli more quickly, more frequently, and at higher percentages compared to Hispanic/Latino and White stimuli. Forty participants completed a computerized shooter task adapted from previous research in which participants made rapid repeated decisions to shoot or not shoot. If shooter bias is related to threat perception, a pattern of bias should be present when using images of other threat-related ethnic minorities. Previous research on the shooter bias effect has focused on Black versus White male stimuli, with participants mistakenly shooting unarmed Black stimuli more often than White stimuli. Because black and Latino pedestrians are still more likely to be frisked and subjected to non-weapon force after matching for relevant pedestrian and stop characteristics, particular attention is paid to the role of implicit bias. Results are contextualized in terms of threat theory, administrative and organizational policy, and implicit bias. Race and ethnicity are not associated with weapon force. The results show that being black or Latino is associated with being frisked and subjected to non-weapon force. the effect of being black or Latino) on four post-stop outcomes (being frisked, being subjected to any force, being subjected to weapon force, and being subjected to non-weapon force). ![]() Inverse probability weighted regression adjustment and covariate exact matching were used on the New York City Police Department's stop-and-frisk data from 2008 to 2012 to estimate the average treatment effect on the treated (i.e. Determine whether black and Latino pedestrians are more likely to be frisked or subjected to the use of force under New York City's stop-and-frisk program.
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